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Putnam's two-level game theory, first presented in his 1988 article "Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games", explains how international negotiations are shaped by both international and domestic factors. Leaders must navigate the international playing field, negotiating with other countries, while simultaneously securing domestic support. Balancing these often-conflicting interests is crucial for successful negotiations. For example, a leader might agree to international terms but needs to convince domestic constituents of the deal's benefits to maintain political support
GATT Article XXI, the "security exceptions" clause, permits WTO members to adopt trade measures that would normally violate GATT rules if deemed necessary to protect their "essential security interests." This effectively provides a national security exception, including the right to withhold sensitive information.